Refraction

Refraction of light is the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another. You have seen this without realizing it when you look at an object under water in a pool while you are on the surface. Another example is when you look at a straw in a glass of water, the straw looks bent. However, it is refraction that makes the straw look bent.

When light travels from one medium to another (for example air into glass or plastic) the light will bend because of the difference in density. A material like glass or plastic will have more atoms per unit volume than air, so the light will bend as they hit the atoms. A material's ability to cause light to "bend" is defined by its index of refraction, n.

 

The equation explaining the bend is given by n1sinΘ1= n2sinΘ2  where n is the index of refraction of the material (either material 1 or material 2) and Θ is the angle of refraction measured from the normal. If the light comes in normal (i.e. perpendicular to the interface of the two materials), the light does not bend because Θ is 0 and sin Θ is 0.


 


Another consequence of light refraction is that the speed of light changes as it transfers from one medium to another. This is given by v1/n1=v2/n2 where v is the speed in medium. So the speed of light really is not a constant if we go from one medium to another. In fact, the speed of light you know and love is measured in a vacuum with n = 1. All other material (including air) has an index of refraction greater than 1, which means that the speed of light is slower in every material in the universe, since by definition, a vacuum is a lack of material.


Refraction is what causes lenses to work and why telescopes with lenses are called refractors. The lenses at the objective end of the telescope and at the eyepiece end bend the light towards your eye (or the detector).


One last consequence of refraction is that the bending is also dependent on the wavelength of the light. The longer the wavelength, the less the light bends since the longer wavelengths have an "easier" time avoiding the atoms in the material. This is how a prism works. Red light is bent less than blue light and when you use a prism on white light (defined as the combination of all colors of light), you get a rainbow of color. This is also how astronomers get spectra of stars and galaxies by using prisms on their light and measuring the emission and absorption lines in the light profile.

Properties of Light

Light is a unique thing. We can think of it terms of both waves and particles called photons. In this post, we are going to look at only the wave nature of light, or in general, all electromagnetic radiation of which light is only a small subset.


 


Electromagnetic radiation is made up of both electric fields and magnetic fields which propagate perpendicular to each other. The wave itself, moves in the third direction, perpendicular to the fields.

where B is the strength of the magnetic field, E is the strength of the electric field, and c is the speed of light (3x10⁸ m/s)

 

So what exactly is a wave? Waves have maxima (crests), minima (troughs), and zero points (nodes).

We can also take a measure of a wave by looking at the distance between successive crests (or troughs) which we call the wavelength, represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ). This can be measured in meters, nanometers (10^-9 m), or Ångstroms (10^-10 m symbolized by Å).

Or we can look at a point in space and how long it takes two successive crests (or troughs) to pass that point in space. This is called the frequency, symbolized as either f or ν (Greek letter nu). This value can be measured in the inverse of seconds (1/s) or Hertz.

The cool thing about the wavelength and the frequency is that you can multiply them together to get the speed of the wave. In our case, for light, the speed is just c.

c= λ*ν

 

Lastly, when we are talking about visible light, we are talking about all light that can be seen by the human eye. They range in color from red to violet (ROY G. BIV), with the longer wavelengths and shorter frequencies closer to the red end of the spectrum and the shorter wavelengths with higher frequencies near the violet end.

For visible light, red is approximately 7000 Å and 430 terahertz (10¹² Hertz). Violet is around 3000 Å and 1 petahertz (10¹⁵ Hertz). 

These will become important later on.